The past few days have been quite eventful with two incidents involving a Philippine Airlines plane and a Cebu Pacific plane on separate occasions. After reading some media releases and comments, I have concluded that people need to learn a few basics about aviation. Aviation can be very technical, where one word makes a huge difference. For instance, “take-off” is different from “climb.” While these two may have similar meanings, they are still different.
With that in mind, I am posting some information on the basics of aviation. There’s so much more to share, but I don’t think I have the time to research each and every detail. Hence, I would like to provide everyone with some basic knowledge about aviation and airplanes. There is much more to cover, but I will focus on a few key aspects.
Different Types of Aircraft
Commercial Aircraft
Commercial aircraft are designed to transport passengers and cargo over various distances. Examples include the Airbus A320, Boeing 737, and Boeing 777. These aircraft are the backbone of the airline industry, providing reliable and efficient transportation. Commercial aircraft are categorized into narrow-body and wide-body types. Narrow-body aircraft, such as the Boeing 737 and Airbus A320, typically have a single aisle and are used for short to medium-haul flights. Wide-body aircraft, like the Boeing 777 and Airbus A350, feature two aisles and are used for long-haul international flights. These aircraft are equipped with advanced avionics, efficient engines, and various passenger amenities to enhance the travel experience.
Military Aircraft
Military aircraft serve defense and combat roles. Types include fighters like the F-15 Eagle, bombers like the B-52 Stratofortress, and transport aircraft like the C-130 Hercules. These aircraft are equipped with advanced technologies for various missions. Fighters are designed for air superiority, ground attack, and reconnaissance missions. Bombers carry and deliver large payloads of bombs or missiles over long distances. Transport aircraft are used to move troops, equipment, and supplies. Military aircraft are built to withstand harsh conditions and often feature advanced stealth, weaponry, and surveillance systems.
Private Aircraft
Private aircraft cater to individual or corporate travel needs. These range from small single-engine planes like the Cessna 172 to large business jets like the Gulfstream G650. They offer flexibility and convenience for personal travel. Private aircraft provide a high level of comfort and customization. Small propeller-driven aircraft are ideal for short flights and accessing remote locations. Business jets offer luxurious interiors, high-speed travel, and long-range capabilities, making them popular among executives and high-net-worth individuals. Private aviation allows for flexible scheduling and access to smaller airports that commercial flights do not serve.
Basic Parts of an Aircraft and Their Functions
Fuselage
The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft, housing the cockpit, passenger cabin, and cargo hold. It provides structural integrity and aerodynamic shape. The fuselage must withstand various forces during flight, including pressurization at high altitudes. The cockpit, located at the front, contains the flight controls and instrumentation necessary for pilots to operate the aircraft. The passenger cabin includes seating, storage, and amenities for comfort, while the cargo hold stores baggage and freight. Modern fuselage designs often use lightweight composite materials to improve fuel efficiency and performance.
Wings
Wings generate lift, allowing the aircraft to fly. They contain fuel tanks and sometimes house landing gear. The design of wings affects the aircraft’s performance and efficiency. Wings are engineered to create a pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces, generating lift. The shape, size, and angle of the wings determine how much lift is produced and how efficiently the aircraft can fly. Fuel tanks within the wings help balance the aircraft’s weight and maintain its center of gravity. Winglets, extensions at the tips of the wings, reduce drag and improve fuel efficiency by minimizing vortex formation.
Empennage
The empennage, or tail section, includes the vertical stabilizer and horizontal stabilizer. These components provide stability and control, ensuring the aircraft maintains its desired flight path. The vertical stabilizer, or fin, prevents side-to-side yawing movements, while the horizontal stabilizer prevents up-and-down pitching motions. The rudder, attached to the vertical stabilizer, allows pilots to control yaw, while the elevators on the horizontal stabilizer control pitch. Some aircraft also have a trim tab to help maintain level flight without continuous control input.
Engines
Engines provide the thrust needed for flight. They can be jet engines, turboprops, or piston engines. Modern jet engines are highly efficient and powerful, allowing aircraft to fly long distances at high speeds. Jet engines, including turbofans and turbojets, operate on the principle of air compression, fuel combustion, and exhaust thrust. Turboprop engines combine jet engine technology with propellers for efficient performance at lower speeds. Piston engines, found in smaller aircraft, operate similarly to car engines, using internal combustion to turn a propeller. Engine placement and configuration can vary, with some aircraft featuring engines mounted on the wings, tail, or fuselage.
Landing Gear
The landing gear supports the aircraft during takeoff, landing, and taxiing. It includes wheels, struts, and shock absorbers, ensuring a smooth operation on the ground. Landing gear can be fixed or retractable, with retractable gear reducing drag during flight. The main landing gear, usually located under the wings or fuselage, bears most of the aircraft’s weight, while the nose gear provides steering and support. Shock absorbers cushion the impact of landing and help maintain stability on uneven surfaces. Modern landing gear systems also include anti-skid braking to prevent tire lockup during deceleration.
Phases of a Flight
Takeoff
During takeoff, the aircraft accelerates along the runway until it reaches the necessary speed to become airborne. This phase is critical for ensuring a smooth ascent. Pilots increase engine power to maximum thrust, and the aircraft’s speed builds up rapidly. As the aircraft reaches rotation speed (V_r), the pilot gently pulls back on the control column, raising the nose and lifting off the ground. Takeoff performance is influenced by factors such as aircraft weight, runway length, weather conditions, and altitude. This is one of the most dangerous phases of a flight.
Climb
After takeoff, the aircraft climbs to its cruising altitude. This phase involves adjusting the speed and altitude to optimize fuel efficiency and passenger comfort. Pilots use climb thrust settings and adjust the aircraft’s pitch to achieve a steady ascent. Climb gradients and rates are carefully managed to avoid obstacles and ensure safe separation from other aircraft. As the aircraft ascends, air traffic control provides instructions to guide the flight path and maintain safe distances from other traffic.
Cruise
The cruise phase is when the aircraft maintains a steady altitude and speed. This is the longest phase of the flight, allowing passengers to relax and enjoy the journey. During cruise, pilots monitor systems, manage fuel consumption, and communicate with air traffic control to ensure a smooth flight. Modern aircraft are equipped with autopilot systems that can maintain the desired flight path and altitude with minimal manual input. The cruise phase is optimized for fuel efficiency and can last several hours on long-haul flights.
Descent
During descent, the aircraft gradually lowers its altitude in preparation for landing. Pilots adjust the speed and angle of descent to ensure a smooth approach. The descent phase begins well before the destination, with pilots reducing engine power and adjusting the aircraft’s pitch to initiate a gradual descent. Air traffic control provides vectors and altitude clearances to guide the aircraft toward the airport. Pilots manage descent rates to ensure passenger comfort and compliance with noise abatement procedures.
Landing
Landing involves the aircraft touching down on the runway and decelerating to a safe speed for taxiing to the gate. This phase requires precise control to ensure a safe arrival. Pilots align the aircraft with the runway, manage descent rates, and deploy landing gear and flaps to increase drag and stability. Upon touchdown, reverse thrust and braking systems are used to slow the aircraft. Pilots maintain directional control using the rudder and nosewheel steering. Once the aircraft reaches taxi speed, it exits the runway and proceeds to the gate.
Airport Runway System
Runways and Taxiways
Runways are used for takeoff and landing, while taxiways connect runways with terminals and other airport facilities. They are essential for the safe movement of aircraft on the ground. Runways are designed to handle the stresses of aircraft operations, with durable surfaces and markings to guide pilots. Taxiways provide clear paths for aircraft to move between runways and parking areas. They are equipped with lighting and signage to ensure safe navigation, especially in low-visibility conditions.
Apron
The apron is the area where aircraft are parked, loaded, and refueled. It is a busy zone requiring careful coordination. Apron areas are designed to accommodate various aircraft sizes and provide access to terminal gates, cargo facilities, and maintenance areas. Ground handling crews manage activities such as baggage loading, refueling, and catering services. Safety procedures and markings ensure the efficient movement of aircraft and ground vehicles.
Air Bridge
Air bridges connect the terminal to the aircraft, allowing passengers to board and disembark safely. These extendable walkways provide a secure and sheltered path for passengers, protecting them from weather conditions and minimizing the risk of accidents. Air bridges are designed to adjust to different aircraft door heights and positions, ensuring compatibility with various aircraft types.
PAPI Lights
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) lights help pilots maintain the correct approach angle during landing. These lights provide visual guidance, with a series of red and white lights indicating whether the aircraft is too high, too low, or on the correct glide path. PAPI systems are positioned alongside the runway and are crucial for ensuring safe and accurate landings, especially in poor visibility conditions.
Runway and Taxiway Lights
These lights guide pilots during low visibility conditions, ensuring safe movement on the ground. Runway lights include edge lights, centerline lights, and touchdown zone lights, all of which help pilots maintain orientation and alignment during takeoff and landing. Taxiway lights include edge lights and centerline lights, providing clear guidance for safe navigation. Lighting systems are color-coded to differentiate between runways and taxiways and to indicate specific areas such as intersections and holding points.
Runway Designations and Markings
Runways are designated by numbers representing their magnetic heading. Markings indicate the runway’s centerline, threshold, and touchdown zone. Taxiway markings provide directional guidance. Runway numbers are based on the magnetic compass direction rounded to the nearest ten degrees. For example, a runway with a heading of 270 degrees is designated as Runway 27. Markings include threshold bars, aiming points, and touchdown zone markings, which help pilots execute precise landings. Taxiway markings include centerline stripes, edge markings, and directional signs to ensure safe and efficient movement.
Safety and Operational Procedures
Takeoff Separation
Aircraft maintain a separation of around five minutes during takeoff to avoid wake turbulence, which can disrupt the stability of following aircraft. Wake turbulence is caused by the wingtip vortices generated by an aircraft, creating a dangerous disturbance for subsequent aircraft. Separation intervals ensure that the turbulent air has dissipated before the next aircraft takes off. This procedure is critical for maintaining safe and stable flight conditions during departure.
Aborted Takeoff and Landing
Pilots may abort takeoff or landing due to technical issues, sudden weather changes, or obstacles on the runway. This ensures the safety of passengers and crew. An aborted takeoff, also known as a rejected takeoff, occurs when the pilot decides to halt the takeoff roll due to engine failure, system malfunctions, or runway obstructions. An aborted landing, or go-around, is performed when the approach is unsafe, often due to unstable approach conditions, runway incursions, or sudden changes in weather. These procedures require quick decision-making and precise control to ensure a safe outcome.
Go-Around Procedures
If conditions are unsafe for landing, pilots may perform a go-around, circling back for another approach. Go-arounds are initiated when the aircraft is not properly aligned with the runway, the approach is unstable, or obstacles are present on the runway. Pilots apply full power, retract landing gear and flaps, and climb to a safe altitude. Air traffic control provides instructions for rejoining the traffic pattern and preparing for another landing attempt. Go-arounds ensure that landings are conducted under optimal conditions, prioritizing safety.
Weather Phenomena
Sudden changes in weather, such as wind shear, downdrafts, and updrafts, can pose significant challenges during flight. Pilots receive training to manage these conditions safely. Wind shear involves abrupt changes in wind speed or direction, which can affect the aircraft’s stability and performance. Downdrafts and updrafts are vertical air movements that can cause sudden altitude changes. Pilots use weather radar, onboard instruments, and air traffic control guidance to navigate through adverse weather and maintain safe flight conditions.
Understanding Turbulence
Turbulence is caused by irregular air currents but is usually not enough to cause an aircraft to crash. Pilots and aircraft systems are well-equipped to handle it. Turbulence can be caused by various factors, including weather fronts, jet streams, mountain waves, and convective activity. Pilots use seatbelt signs to ensure passenger safety during turbulent conditions. Modern aircraft are designed to withstand turbulence, with flexible wings and robust structures that absorb and dissipate the forces. Pilots adjust speed and altitude to minimize the impact of turbulence and maintain a smooth flight. Clear Air Turbulence or CAT happens during clear weather, which is undetectable by an aircraft radar system.
Aircraft Operations and Systems
Single-Engine Taxiing
After landing, aircraft often use one engine to taxi to conserve fuel and reduce wear on engines. Single-engine taxiing reduces fuel consumption and engine operating hours, contributing to lower operational costs and reduced environmental impact. Pilots shut down one engine after landing and use the remaining engine to taxi to the gate. This practice also reduces noise levels at the airport and minimizes emissions.
ETOPS
ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance Standards) allows twin-engine aircraft to fly long-distance routes far from airports, previously restricted to four-engine planes. ETOPS certification ensures that twin-engine aircraft can safely operate over oceanic or remote areas with limited diversion options. Airlines must demonstrate rigorous maintenance, training, and operational standards to obtain ETOPS approval. This certification has expanded route flexibility and efficiency, allowing airlines to operate long-haul flights with fuel-efficient twin-engine aircraft.
Aircraft Safety Features
Fire Suppression Systems
Aircraft are equipped with fire suppression systems to quickly extinguish onboard fires. These systems include fire detection sensors, extinguishing agents, and automatic or manual activation mechanisms. Fire suppression systems are installed in engines, cargo holds, and lavatories to address potential fire hazards. Pilots and cabin crew receive training to manage fire emergencies and ensure passenger safety.
Fuse Plugs
Fuse plugs on tires melt at high temperatures to prevent blowouts during hard braking. These plugs are designed to release air from the tires if they become overheated, reducing the risk of tire bursts during landing or rejected takeoff. This safety feature helps maintain control and stability during critical phases of flight.
Ram-Air Turbine (RAT)
The RAT provides emergency power in case of engine failure, ensuring essential systems remain operational. The RAT deploys automatically or manually, generating hydraulic or electrical power from the airflow. This emergency power source supports vital systems, such as flight controls, avionics, and communication, during an engine-out situation.
Other Aircraft Safety Systems
Modern aircraft are equipped with various safety systems, including enhanced ground proximity warning systems (EGPWS), traffic collision avoidance systems (TCAS), and advanced avionics for navigation and communication. EGPWS alerts pilots to potential terrain collisions, while TCAS provides warnings and resolution advisories for nearby aircraft. Redundant systems and fail-safe designs ensure continued operation even in the event of equipment failure.
Runway Incidents
Overshoot and Runway Excursion
An overshoot occurs when an aircraft lands beyond the designated runway area, while a runway excursion involves veering off the runway. Both incidents require careful management to ensure safety. Overshoots can result from unstable approaches, high landing speeds, or adverse weather conditions. Runway excursions may occur due to slippery surfaces, mechanical failures, or pilot errors. Emergency response teams and procedures are in place to address these incidents and minimize risks to passengers and crew.
Other Incidents
Other incidents that can occur on runways include bird strikes, foreign object debris (FOD) damage, and ground collisions. Bird strikes involve collisions between aircraft and birds, posing a risk to engines and airframes. FOD damage results from debris on the runway, which can cause tire punctures or engine ingestion. Ground collisions may occur between aircraft or with ground vehicles, emphasizing the importance of strict ground safety protocols.
Aircraft Designations
Airbus and Boeing Naming Conventions
Airbus and Boeing use specific naming conventions to indicate aircraft variants and engine types. For example, the Airbus A320-231 indicates a specific engine, while the Boeing 777-36N shows a customer code. Airbus designations use a three-digit system, with the first digit indicating the aircraft family, the second digit representing the variant, and the third digit denoting the engine type. Boeing designations include a three-digit model number, with the first digit indicating the series and the last two digits representing the customer code. Understanding these conventions helps identify aircraft configurations and capabilities.
Tips and Advice When there are Aviation Incidents
It is very important for everyone to understand this. We have been seeing aviation incidents over the past few days, and I feel the need to share some crucial points.
- Never pre-empt the cause of an incident or air crash if the investigation is still ongoing. Anything could have happened. What may initially seem like a mechanical error could turn out to be different when the investigation results are out. Hence, do not pre-empt the possible cause of an incident, especially if your sources are merely eyewitnesses or passengers. When I am asked about the possible cause of a certain incident, I always say, “the incident is still under investigation, so it’s best to wait for the investigation results as anything could have happened and can happen.”
- A passenger’s recount is used as evidence in the investigation results but never as a conclusion of what really happened. Let’s not forget that a passenger only sees and hears what’s in the cabin and can only see what’s outside the window and all that is visible to them. Let’s not forget that pilots see more—they see what’s in front of them and what’s on their instruments. Hence, never ask the passengers of an air incident what the cause of the incident is. Of course, they will just base this on what they saw. The best approach is to ask them what they saw and heard.
- The safest way to describe an incident if you don’t have details yet is “technical issues” or “technical problems.” Going into details without knowing the situation can spread false information. For example, an aircraft tire that exploded is totally different from one that is deflated. Aircraft tires are equipped with fuse plugs to prevent the tires from exploding in case of a high-energy rejected take-off. Instead, the fuse plugs melt at certain temperatures that deflate the tires. A blown tire looks different from a deflated tire—a blown tire is ripped apart.
- There are three main causes of air incidents: human error, mechanical/technical error, or a combination of both. Air investigations are conducted to determine the cause, and the process can be quite long because all angles are examined. Hence, it is never advisable to draw conclusions based on what you just see. The investigation process is very detailed. Always remember, the pilots see more than what the passengers see.
If you have any more questions on the basics of aviation, just message me. There is actually more, but I will dwell on those later. Also, to my media friends, if you have any questions related to aviation, you may always send me a message. I will do my best to answer them too.
First love never dies. I fell in love with airplanes and aviation when I was a kid. My dream was to become a pilot, but destiny led me to another path: to be an aviation digital media content creator and a small business owner. My passion for aviation inspires me to bring you quality content through my website and social accounts. Aviation is indeed in my blood and blog!
